Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Research Paper - 4

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) - Research Paper Example 52).). Delaney clause on the other hand states that carcinogenic in food is unacceptable. Through this it protects public health and especially children who are vulnerable. However, every alternative to Delaney incorporates some risk assessment which defines certain levels of acceptable risks. Delaney clause is subject to some limitations in prioritizing the level of risk management for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. One of the problems is that it does not take into account the exact risk that a carcinogenic substance can pose once consumed (Dickey, p. 42). This is because the analytical chemistry has been improved and can detect even smaller quantities of chemicals as chemicals have become widely used nowadays. Regulatory agencies are thus faced with difficulties in trying to administer Delaney’s Clause because it applies to quantities used in large amounts and can easily be detected. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) confronted this problem by using quantitative risk assessment and set a standard known as â€Å"de minis†, which held that risk was negligible if a carcinogenic food additive was concentrated at less than 1part in 1,000,000 (Dickey, p. 45). The issue regarding pesticides use for which Delaney’s Clause prohibited also had limitations. This is found in section 409 and it poses difficulties to those agencies which has the mandate to regulate pesticides (Shimada and Fujii-Kuriyama, p. 71). Agencies like Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) conflicts with Delaney’s Clause because they license the sale of pesticides and most probably if they are of more benefit to the country than the risk they pose. This is contrary to Delaney’s Clause which does not take into account the risk-benefit analysis but have a clear conclusion that if the pesticide in a food additive is evident to cause cancer inhuman being or in animals then it should

Robert Hooke Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Robert Hooke - Essay Example The simple thought never occurred to the famous philospher that he may need further corroboration to his obsevation before he could state it as a universal fact. The Greeks could see, but their vision was severely limited, there was not much of scope, and there were no scientific instruments. And even that breadth and depth of thinking among men of the ancient Western civilization died out with the advent of religious dogmatism, at which point the dark ages began. But fortunately, though these medieval times of nescience lasted for a long time, they did not last forever. The Greek spirit eventually revived. The glorious age of Renaissance began, men again began to think and look at the world around them with a new clarity. Soon they began to see farther than anyone had before them. Much much farther - through the telescope. They began to see a litte deeper too, and deeper: through a microscope. It was all about vision. And a man of science who lived towards the end of Renaissance, and who most perfectly represented this expanding vision of human mind was Robert Hooke. His advances in material science, astronomy and micrography paved way to the 19th and 20th century science in a significant way. Robert Hooke was the quintessential renaissance man, ever curious, ever exploring, ceaselessly seeking answers, studying, theorizing, inventing, and relentlessly pursuing knowledge in general. Some have called him the greatest experimental scientist of the 17th century. A prolific inventor and designer of scientific instruments besides being a natural philosopher par excellence, Robert Hooke is best known to modern students of physics through Hooke's law of elasticity, and to students of biology as a pioneer of cell theory. However, these aspects reflect but a minor part of Hooke's immense achievement in an astonishingly wide variety of scientific fields - in physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, astronomy, and geology. He was also in a big way into architecture and naval technology, and in a smaller way into sundry items of scientific interest. But, by far the most interesting, and sadly the most unfortunate, fact about Robert Hooke is that he remained a forgotten genius for a long time even well into the twentieth century. It is thanks to a remarkable biography of Mrs. Margaret Espinasse in the 1950's that students of scientific history have been able to recognize the true scale of Robert Hooke's immense contribution to science. More recent times have seen a spate of important books on Robert Hooke, books such as "Man Who Knew Too Much: The Strange & Inventive Life of Robert Hooke 1635-1703" by Stephen Inwood, "England's Leonardo: Robert Hooke and the Seventeenth-Century Scientific Revolution" by Allan Chapman, "Robert Hooke and the Rebuilding of London" by Michael Cooper, "Robert Hooke: Creative Genius, Scientist, Inventor" by Mary Gow, "The Curious Life of Robert Hooke : The Man Who Measured London" by Lisa Jardine. Most recently, " Robert Hooke: Tercentennial Studies" have also been published. The sheer number of works published on Robert Hooke is an indication clear enough as to the real scope of his scientific caliber. But the big question remains: How

Shanghai American school Essay Example for Free

Shanghai American school Essay This commentary is based on an extract from the Penguin hardback edition of the novel, Fifth Business by Robertson Davies. The passage begins on p. 114 last paragraph I was fill with to p. 116 a selfish, envious, cankered wretch, wasnt I? Written by Jonas Hahn IB English A1 (hl) Shanghai American School I recognized that my limp was always worse and I did not want her, but it annoyed me Boy had her give the time after the First World War, of a man fighting his own battle. It can be observed, that at surface level, it is about the narrator returning from war with only one leg and not succeeding with the girl he desired. This causes him even more pain that his limp. Yet with closer examination is can be seen that this passage holds more to it, it is a power struggle between Boy and the narrator. Also it is about impressing each other and always wanting more than the other person, not just simply the return of a soldier who is wounded. Hahn 2. The entire extract is written in first person, seemingly allowing the reader to enter the state of mind and emotions the narrator is in; yet paradoxically his personal affairs are not mentioned, instead the narrator talks about boys affairs, he only mentions that he is envies. This technique of omission is extremely powerful giving the reader a different impression of the narrator. This slice of life story begins with the narrator having a sudden realization. It gives the passage a very controversial tone. The narrator omits his personal pain all through the extract except when he is [envies] of boy. Though out the extract the narrators personal life is never mention yet boys occasional weekend visits were discussed thoroughly. It is also never mentioned that he is lonely just that he is envies and jealous. This omission though out the passage implies to the reader that the narrator wants sympathy for his life with only one leg and that he cant have the girl he wants. Later in the passage the mood changes, the narrator would have given much for the strength of mind to tell him what he really thought of Boy. There is a tension between Boy and the narrator who both fight for power and existence. Boy is rubbing the fact that he has the possession of Leola, and pashes in the city and a healthy body. The narrator is trying to justify this behavior but he doesnt succeed. Instead he questions himself: why did I not find some other girl? and A selfish, envious, cankered wretch, wasnt I instead of questioning Boy about his affairs with all the gay girls. This gives the passage an extraordinary touch to it. Hahn 3 I hobbled away grumbling to myself like Diogenes. This allusion, used by the narrator is very powerful. It is very clearly stated that hr didnt want the clothes the girl or the booze yet he imprisoned himself into a situation, which couldnt be escaped. Diogenes did the exact same thing and said having too many possessions impressions you, yet this is a contradiction in this extract. The narrator has nothing yet he feels as if he were imprisoned, this is an oxymoron meaning one thing but really something else is going on. This passage moves from envies what Boy has and the narrator does not, towards jealousy that Boy has everything and the narrator has nothing, although he is a cruel person, thus the narrator deserves some sympathy. In the first paragraph the narrator describes the situation he undergoing, then moving on to the free spirit girls in Toronto, to the narrators argument amongst himself. Though out the stages of this passage the narrator is very anxious of what he doesnt have, yet he doesnt want what he doesnt have he simply wants Boy not to have it. He uses such words as deceived Leola instead of saying he lied to her. He was also a very active listener to Boy when he talked about all his girls who knew what they were doing yet he was never critical to with Boys decisions.

If global warming is a man-made disaster why have governments around the world failed to do very much about it?

If global warming is a man-made disaster why have governments around the world failed to do very much about it? One of the most important phenomena affecting nations in the 21st century is global warming. Global warming is defined generally as the progressive rise in average global temperatures caused by increased emissions of greenhouse gases, and is often referred to as the effect on the climate of human activities[1]. Though there have always been natural cycles of changing climate, global warming is considered to be man-made due to increased burning of fossil fuels and large-scale deforestation, which have led to a large increment in carbon dioxide emissions, coinciding with steadily rising temperatures[2]. Although efforts have been made to reduce the effects of global warming, governments around the world have failed to effectively tackle the issue. There are several reasons for this failure, including the problem of governing the commons, effects on the economy, as well as the difficulty in achieving global cooperation over the issue. This essay aims to discuss and analyse the main reas ons why governments have failed to successfully reduce global warming. One of the most fundamental reasons why very little has been achieved by governments in the effort to combat global warming lies with the difficulty of governing the commons. When a resource is not under jurisdiction of a single sovereign state, it is considered to be part of the commons, implying unrestricted access to anyone[3]. This means that no individual state has reason to preserve the resource, but rather to take as much of it for themselves as possible, usually leading to over exploitation[4]. The other issue with the commons is that they are often used as sinks for degraded waste products[5]. It is generally possible to solve this issue by allocating the commons into private ownership, thus creating incentives to preserve and manage them. However, this solution is not viable for the atmosphere because it is impossible to enclose, thus difficult to divide between states. As with any other resource that lacks ownership, the atmosphere becomes subject to the tragedy of the co mmons, but without the simple solution of private ownership. Therefore, it is difficult to negotiate an agreement over emission limits because states gain higher individual benefit than individual costs from increasing production, as the total cost of pollution is shared[6]. However, with the spread of globalisation, it is feasible that an increased awareness of a shared global space can increase states self-interest in protecting the environment. However, globalisation can in some ways be considered to be a reason for the limited success in curbing global warming. The relationship between the process of globalisation and the problem of environmental degradation is fairly complex, as though globalisation may raise the importance of protecting the commons, it may actually heighten the problem. Globalisation has lead to the spread of industry around the world, resulting in rising levels of production and consumption, which in turn leads to increased emissions[7]. The demand for open borders and free trade makes it more difficult for governments to enforce environmental regulations as firms are more able to evade them by moving to areas in which regulations do not exist or are lower[8]. The more difficult or complicated the regulation process is, the more unlikely governments are to succeed in lowering emissions. This has led to the argument that international trade is incompatible with environmental protection, as increased trad e and globalisation lead to further industrialisation, production and consumption, thus increasing global emissions, limiting governments ability to stop global warming. Governments may also have failed in successfully accounting for externalities of pollution (environmental and social damage) as pollution taxes and regulations have not been at a socially efficient level, thus leading to inefficiently high emissions[9]. However, many people argue that globalisation actually increases the efficiency of production, as long as markets take into account these externalities[10]. The spread of wealth and knowledge to new regions brought about by globalisation can also be argued to improve local environments due the facilitation of global awareness. Therefore, possibly a more viable explanation for the failure of governments in regulating global warming emerges from the potential economic costs of reducing production and consumption. It may not be in the national interests of states to reduce emissions, as this would involve limiting production by regulating emissions. Furthermore, reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases would involve regulation of energy, transport, agriculture, and industry, which are fundamental to modern economies[11]. Therefore, governments are reluctant to ban greenhouse gas emissions or to call for severe cuts as this could potentially have devastating effects on their economies, thus lowering living standards. Moreover, the cost of developing new technology and renewable energies to replace current production methods is vast, even though there are potential economic benefits from investing in alternative energy technologies[12]. Governments may therefore forego sustainability at the expense of economi c growth. However, probably the most important reason why governments have not succeeded in significantly reducing global warming is the difficulty in achieving global cooperation on the issue. Although the tragedy of the commons, globalisation and economic effects play a large role in the past failure in the reduction of global warming, most of these problems ultimately stem down to the lack of cooperation between states in dealing with the issue. Global warming is an issue that transcends national boundaries, involves irreversible damage to the environment, and affects all states, thus requiring international cooperation[13]. Many attempts have been made at reaching cooperation in the past, through numerous summits and meetings, and the creation of treaties and global institutions, such as the Kyoto Protocol and the United Nations Environment Program[14]. These attempts have had limited success in bringing the issue of global warming onto the global agenda. For example, the issue of governi ng global commons has been approached by creating a framework of mutually acceptable standards of behaviour, and the issue of economic costs for states has been tackled by setting global emission targets (Kyoto Protocol for example). However, regardless of these attempts, it has been impossible to forge global cooperation for several reasons. Firstly, international environmental meetings often serve many other political objectives, thus making it less likely that states will reach an understanding[15]. In conjunction, states may have conflicting national interests over political issues, the economy, trade policies, as well as the environment, making it difficult to forge a deal that adheres to each states needs. In addition, since international cooperation involves transboundary regulation, some have made claims that environmental action and new forms of global governance may be a threat to state sovereignty, thus further complicating cooperation[16]. Furthermore, it is important to consider the role of hegemons, especially the United States, in forging international cooperation. In recent years, the US has rejected many global efforts in environmental policymaking, withdrawing from the Kyoto Protocol, challenging the need for new treaties and questioning the precautionary principle in environmental protection[17]. If the US fails to act on global warming by accepting emission limits or by taking environmental leadership, other nations will find it difficult to do so while still remaining economically competitive. Therefore, there are many reasons explaining why governments have failed to do so little about global warming, largely arising from the difficulty in global environmental cooperation. In my opinion, although governments around the world have failed to fully prevent the negative effects of global warming, there have been many achievements that have brought the world closer to successfully understanding how to do so. In many cases, environmental problems can be managed through cooperation in global institutions and treaties[18]. Despite USAs failure to ratify Kyoto, there is significant proof that emissions targets do work in slowing down global warming[19]. Furthermore, solutions such as tradable permits and carbon taxes have gone a long way in finding a market based solution to the problem of greenhouse gas emissions[20]. International action could be further encouraged by the acknowledgement of global warming as a national security risk, as environmental degradation leads to both internal and external conflicts by potentially deepening poverty cycles and leading to mass migration away from degraded areas[21]. By accentuating the security risks associated with gl obal warming, governments may be more inclined to act, as security issues are crucial to governing a state. Even though global warming is acknowledged as a man-made disaster, governments have failed to fully stop its effects. This can be attributed to the difficulty in governing the global commons, the spread of globalisation and the potential effects on the economy of cutting emissions, as well as the difficulty in reaching global cooperation in environmental policy. Governments still face the task of finding a socially optimal level of regulation, the difficulty of ensuring emission standards are met once a treaty has been signed[22], as well as managing the connections between climate change, security, and globalisation. However, if powerful nations take the lead in promoting environmental norms, and if states adopt a precautionary principle on global warming, international cooperation can potentially succeed in providing governance regimes for important global commons. Word count: 1500 Bibliography: Baylis, J. Smith, S. and Owens, P. (eds), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, 4th Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Steans, J. and Pettiford, L. (2005), International Relations: Perspectives and Themes, 2nd Edition, (Harlow: Pearson Education). Krugman, P. Wells, R. Graddy, K. (2008), Economics; European Edition, (Worth Publishers). Cline, W. (1992), The Economics of Global Warming, (Institute for International Economics). Victor, D. (2001), The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to slow Global Warming, (Princeton University Press). Nordhaus, W. Boyer, J. (2000) Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming, (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Hardin, G. (1998), Extensions of the Tragedy of the Commons, Science; New Series, 5634(280): 682-683 Barnett, J. (2003), Security and Climate Change, Global Environmental Change, 13(1): 7-17 Falkner, R. (2005), American Hegemony and the Global Environment, International Studies Review, 7(4): 585-599 Hersch, J. Viscusi, K. (2006), Allocating Responsibility for Failure of Global Warming Policies, Responses to Global Warming: The Law, Economics, and Science of Climate Change, 155(20): 1657-1694 Barrett, S. (1990), The Problem of Global Environmental Protection, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 6(1): 68-79 Robert, K. Basile, G. Kuehr, R. (2002) Strategic Sustainable Development Selection, Design and Synergies of Applied Tools, Journal of Cleaner Production, 10(3): 197-214 Houghton, J. (2005) Global Warming, Reports on the Progress of Physics, 68(1): 1343-1403 Flohn, H. (1980), Possible Climatic Consequences of a Man-made Global Warming United Nations Environment Programme, at: http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Publications/Documents/RR-80-030.pdf [1] Houghton, J. (2005) Global Warming, Reports on the Progress of Physics, 68(1) p.1343 [2] Flohn, H. (1980), Possible Climatic Consequences of a Man-made Global Warming United Nations Environment Programme, at: http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Publications/Documents/RR-80-030.pdf, (Date Accessed: 20/02/2010) [3] Hardin, G. (1998), Extensions of the Tragedy of the Commons, Science; New Series, 5634(280) p. 682 [4] Barrett, S. (1990), The Problem of Global Environmental Protection, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 6(1) p.68 [5] Baylis, J. Smith, S. and Owens, P. (eds), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, 4th Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p.358 [6] Hardin, G. (1998), Extensions of the Tragedy of the Commons, Science; New Series, 5634(280) p. 683 [7] Baylis, J. Smith, S. and Owens, P. (eds), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, 4th Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p.352 [8] Nordhaus, W. Boyer, J. (2000) Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming, (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) p.3 [9] Hersch, J. Viscusi, K. (2006), Allocating Responsibility for Failure of Global Warming Policies, Responses to Global Warming: The Law, Economics, and Science of Climate Change, 155(20) p.1659 [10] Krugman, P. Wells, R. Graddy, K. (2008), Economics; European Edition, (Worth Publishers) p.483 [11] Baylis, J. Smith, S. and Owens, P. (eds), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, 4th Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p.362 [12] Robert, K. Basile, G. Kuehr, R. (2002) Strategic Sustainable Development Selection, Design and Synergies of Applied Tools, Journal of Cleaner Production, 10(3) p.202 [13] Cline, W. (1992), The Economics of Global Warming, (Institute for International Economics) p.9 [14] Baylis, J. Smith, S. and Owens, P. (eds), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, 4th Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p.356 [15] Houghton, J. (2005) Global Warming, Reports on the Progress of Physics, 68(1) p.1391 [16] Steans, J. and Pettiford, L. (2005), International Relations: Perspectives and Themes, 2nd Edition, (Harlow: Pearson Education) p.214 [17] Falkner, R. (2005), American Hegemony and the Global Environment, International Studies Review, 7(4) p.585 [18] Steans, J. and Pettiford, L. (2005), International Relations: Perspectives and Themes, 2nd Edition, (Harlow: Pearson Education) p.206 [19] Hersch, J. Viscusi, K. (2006), Allocating Responsibility for Failure of Global Warming Policies, Responses to Global Warming: The Law, Economics, and Science of Climate Change, 155(20) p.1662 [20] Krugman, P. Wells, R. Graddy, K. (2008), Economics; European Edition, (Worth Publishers) p.481 [21] Barnett, J. (2003), Security and Climate Change, Global Environmental Change, 13(1) p.10 [22] Victor, D. (2001), The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to slow Global Warming, (Princeton University Press) p.55

Artificial Intelligence :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Artificial Intelligence "My name is Dorothy," said the girl, "and I am going to the Emerald City, to ask the Oz to send me back to Kansas."   "Where is the Emerald City?" he enquired; "and who is Oz?"   "Why, don't you know?" she returned in surprise.   "No, indeed; I don't know anything. You see, I am stuffed, so I have no brains at all," he answered, sadly.   "Oh," said Dorothy; "I'm awfully sorry for you."   "Do you think," he asked, "If I go to the Emerald City with you, that the great Oz would give me some brains?"   "I cannot tell you," she returned; "but you may come with me, if you like. If Oz will not give you any brains you will be no worse off than you are now."   -L. Frank Baum, The Wonderful World of Oz1 As Dorothy and the Scarecrow begin their search for a "brain," we can catch a glimpse of an issue that has been bouncing around our culture for centuries: can man make a machine think? While Baum's story does not focus on the Scarecrow as the possibility of a thinking machine, he does raise the question of whether a human brain is necessary for thinking. This question of the brainÕs vitality is first exposed to our culture with what many literary critics feel is the birth of Science Fiction, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.  Ã‚   Frankenstein is the story of dead body parts being brought to life through the use of electricity. After witnessing the creature's action readers are left asking if the human brain is sufficient for thinking or if there is more to thinking than a brain? Other Science Fiction writers took this to a different level and "created" the robot, a non-human thinking machine. Frankenstein is on the cusp of humans and non-humans and the beginning of the debate of what it means to artificially think. These imagined ideas caused others to think about making these ideas a reality. Marvin Minsky, one of the original scientists involved in establishing artificial intelligence, cites Science Fiction as one of his major motivators to enter the world of AI. It was not until the summer of 1956 that scientists felt that it might be possible to write non-fiction accounts of robots at some point in the near future.  Ã‚   During the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College, scholars, who would later be considered the founding fathers of

Trust Preferred Securities :: Stocks Economics TPS Essays

Trust Preferred Securities Trust Preferred Securities are cumulative preferred stock issued by a business trust that is wholly owned by a bank holding company (BHC) to increase the company’s capital. When originally created in 1993, this security could be classified as debt or equity, as needed, by the issuing company. However, in 2003, the Financial Accounting Standards Board issued Statement No. 150 to standardize classification of Trust Preferred Securities (TPS). A Trust Subsidiary would issue mandatorily redeemable, non-voting preferred stock to 3rd party investors. The Trust subsidiary would then â€Å"loan† the proceeds from the sale of the stock to the Parent BHC with the debt having the same terms as the TPS. Finally, when the Parent BHC made â€Å"interest payments† on the debt to the Trust Subsidiary, the latter used the â€Å"interest income† to make the dividend payments on the securities. For tax purposes, the Parent BHC would classify the proceeds from the issuance of the stock as debt. Remember that the proceeds of the stock issuance had been passed on to the Parent BHC as a â€Å"loan.† This allowed the Parent BHC to take an â€Å"interest† expense tax deduction on the â€Å"interest† paid to the trust. The trust, however, would not get taxed on the â€Å"interest† income it received from the parent company because the trust had been established as a pass-through entity. That means the â€Å"interest† income passed through the trust untaxed and, instead, would get taxed at the security holders’ level. At the same time, for financial reporting purposes, the Parent BHC would classify the same proceeds from the sale of the TPS as capital. The problem with treating the securities as capital in financial reports was that, because the securities were mandatorily redeemable, the company had an unconditional obligation to, at some point, pay out the principal and quarterly dividends at a specified rate. Thus, classifying what met all the characteristics of debt as capital made the company’s financial statements extremely misleading.

Agent of the Disease Essay

The term â€Å"awareness† has become a popular expression for the past decade. It is now so extensive that its meaning can span from being physically to socially aware. Societal consciousness is kept in a lot of ways because of the vast number of researches in different fields and constant media exposure. People have learned millions of facts about the human body unknown to our ancient ancestors. Yet Dr. Bob Moorehead (1995) has once put that we have â€Å"more medicine, but less wellness†. For instance, cancer is known to be a potent killer of human beings yet until now we have no cure for it. In this sense, let’s take cervical cancer differently. This type of cancer occurring in women is the only one known to be caused by a certain type of human papillomavirus (HPV) (â€Å"Genital HPV Infection,† 2004). Viruses can be destroyed by antiviral agents such as chemicals, ionizing radiation and vaccines (Tortora, 1995). This is the reason why there are a large number of groups around the world promoting awareness about this disease believing that it could be the easiest cancer to fight. The World Health Organization (2007) has categorized human cervical cancer as one of the leading types of cancer in women affecting over 510,000 cases annually. It is often asymptomatic which means that the person infected may not immediately know that she is infected. Tests should be done to detect the presence of this disease. Agent of the Disease A group of DNA viruses from the family Papovaviridae cause cervical cancer. This family also includes viruses that cause warts. Human Papillomavirus is the causative agent of cervical cancer. Certain strains are responsible for the simple warts but a few â€Å"high-risk types† of strains lead to cervical cancer (Parkin, 2006). Although viruses can lead to this disease, the American Cancer Society also lists smoking, secondary infection and genetic predisposition as risky factors (â€Å"Cervical,† 2007). HPV strains 16 and 18 are especially risky to women as it causes a certain change in the cervical cells detected through a Pap test. Thus, a woman can be diagnosed of cervical cancer if there is an HPV infection but not all women with HPV can lead to cervical cancer. Vulnerability to the Disease In 2005, lung cancer is the leading cause of death of American citizens and cervical cancer statistics are low (WHO, 2007). Pregnant women can also be affected by this virus but cases of vertical transmission to the offspring are rare. Basically, men and women are prone to infection and transmission of the virus. Women who get infected by HPV are usually sexually active or may have been exposed to the virus previously. They may have multiple sex partners or a single infected partner (â€Å"Genital HPV Infection,† 2004). Again, the HPV strain that causes warts is different from the one causing cervical cancer which means that having warts is not directly linked to having cervical cancer. Environmental Factors As far as infection is concerned, sexual contact is enough to elicit a possibility especially if the partner is infected by the virus. WHO considers poor diet, primary HIV infection, taking oral contraceptives and multiple pregnancies as environmental risks too. Dietary factors such as having foods that are carcinogenic and unhealthy eating habits can lead not only to cervical cancer but to other diseases too. HIV infection, which impairs the human’s immune system against diseases, may bring about cervical cancer making HPV an opportunistic pathogen. There is no clear basis of the link of oral contraceptives and having multiple pregnancies to cancer but hormonal drugs may induce cellular changes in lining of the cervix. There have been recent reports that the use of condoms reduces the risk of HPV infection and cervical cancer in women (â€Å"Condoms help†¦. ,† 2006). Further studies are conducted about this claim and is still a topic of debate in the scientific community. Modes for Disease Transmission Since cervical cancer is primarily caused by a virus, transmission of the disease is through direct contact, in this case, genital contact. An infected genitalia may have sores or ruptures that may come into contact with an uninfected genitalia. Oral sex can also transmit the virus. HPV infection from mothers to newborns is rare or may lead to respiratory papillomatosis. A recent study has reported that a person that may have been infected earlier by a milder strain of the HPV may lead to cervical cancer. Persistent strains may remain dormant in the body and in later years alter its physiology and cause cervical cancer (Cason, Rice & Best, 1998). Thus, the early claim that only â€Å"high-risk types† of strains can cause cervical cancer needs to be re-assessed. Controlling the Spread of the Disease With the increased awareness of the benefits of early detection and prevention of cervical cancer, there are a lot of ways to avoid contracting and preventing the spread of the disease. Cellular analysis, vaccination, use of condoms and the use of microbicides are few suggestions (â€Å"Human Papillomavirus,† 2007). Cytological analysis of the lining of the cervix, commonly called a Pap smear test is effective in distinguishing cellular growth abnormalities. If the Pap smear test results are abnormal, an HPV test that detects the presence of the DNA of the virus can be subsequently done. There are also latest additions of tetravalent vaccines developed by multinational pharmaceutical companies that are now commercially available for women only. The vaccines are still not fool-proof as there are reports of minor side-effects like having fever and redness of the skin (â€Å"HPV,† 2006). Avoiding sexual contact is the most effortless and cheapest way of prevention. Another simple and convenient technique of preventing spread is through the use of condoms. Although condoms are believed to be preventive of sexually transmitted diseases, the effectivity of this practice is still under deliberation. Still there is no harm in using condoms because prevention is always better than cure. Lastly, latest idea in disease control is the production of topical microbicides that can kill the virus before sexual contact. Social and Cultural Influences It is a stigma in this society being labeled as someone having a sexually transmitted disease. Having the disease is already tough, plus the collective prejudice one is subjected to. In the context of social relevance, people have become liberal about having sexual contact where there is no issue about unmarried couples having sex. Teens under legal age also commit this act. It is therefore incontestable that the chances of contracting the disease are really high in this modern age. Awareness of the cause, prevention, detection and treatment of cervical cancer is indubitably crucial. Social beliefs can sometimes prevent the treatment of the disease. The use of condoms is an issue to the Catholic persuasion. Contraceptives are not an option for Catholics, as instructed by the Vatican. Another issue about the treatment of cervical cancer is the use of vaccines that are not yet suitable for use of everyone and may cause side-effects. From the past decades, there have been significant steps in promoting awareness of sexually transmitted diseases. Princess Diana of Wales guilelessly reduced the stigma put by the society to HIV infected patients all over the world. Other famous figures followed her lead to not only erase prejudice but also to let everyone know what these diseases are and find ways to cure them. In the modern world, certain groups educate people worldwide and create ways to reach out to people such as the Digene Corporation. Conclusion Cervical cancer in women is primarily caused by an infection of the human papillomavirus (HPV). There are certain strains that are â€Å"high-risk† for cervical cancer. It is believed that the virus causes an alteration in the cells of the cervix that can lead to cancer. Transmission of the disease is through direct sexual contact or through oral sex where the uninfected skin comes into contact with an infected sore or lesion. Since the cancer is caused by a virus, it is believed to be treated easily and preventable in some ways. Vaccination, the use of condom and topical microbicides, and undergoing the Pap test are some suggested ways to avoid and control the spread of the disease. Due to its curable nature, steps are now done to promote awareness about the disease so that people can avoid contracting and find ways to cure it. References Cason, J. , Rice, P. , & Best, J. (1998). Transmission of cervical cancer-associated human papillomaviruses from mother to child. Intervirology, 41:213-218. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from http://content. karger. com/ProdukteDB/produkte. asp? Doi=24939 â€Å"Cervical Cancer†. 2007, Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia (2007).. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cervical_cancer Condoms help protect against cervical cancer 2006. Associated Press. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/13461194/ â€Å"Genital HPV Infection – CDC Fact Sheet† 2004. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. 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